This article draws on multiple streams of oral tradition, read alongside broader historical and anthropological patterns observed among migratory groups in West Africa. Oral histories are treated here as complementary narratives that, when placed in conversation with one another and with comparative evidence, reveal consistent themes around the migration story of the Ga-Dangbe ethnic group.
In a migratory context, leadership and governance take on distinct characteristics compared to settled societies, shaped by the conditions that stimulated movement. Historical accounts of pre-colonial migration in Africa commonly cite factors such as trade; religious exchange, seasonal movement in search of pasture and fishing grounds, as well as civil disturbance and warfare(1). Oral tradition holds that after crossing the Benue River, the Ga-Dangbe split into three groups, each moving into different regions of present-day Nigeria. One faction, associated with the Ga Mashie, is said to have settled temporarily in what is now Ile-Ife in Osun State, assuring local inhabitants that they did not intend to remain permanently but were only passing through. Nii Ayi Kushi is cited in this account as the leader of that group(2)
From these historical patterns, the demands placed on leadership in a migratory context can be inferred to include preserving group identity and a shared sense of purpose during periods of temporary settlement; maintaining cohesion while adapting to host cultures without losing their own. Leaders would be required to make practical judgments about timing and routes, deciding when to move or pause, and to rouse and sustain morale when navigating physical challenges such as wild animal attacks and major river crossings.
One historical event that illustrates these leadership demands is the crossing of the Volta River near present-day Atsutsuare, when the group was nearing what would become their initial settlement in present-day Ghana. According to oral tradition, a mystic is said to have entered the river and re-emerged in the form of a large crocodile, spanning the river and enabling the people to cross (3). This oral tradition, whether perceived symbolically or literally, introduces the supernatural as an integral part of leadership in this context. Stories such as the Volta River crossing suggest that leadership was expected to extend beyond practical decision-making to include spiritual engagement, especially at moments of danger or uncertainty.
Seen this way, governance of the time needed to combine strategic judgment with spiritual mediation to help guide the group through such critical transitions. Leadership was therefore not exercised by political figures alone. Priests, possibly later formalised as present-day wulomei, formed part of a theocratic system of governance(3), spiritual protection and mediation with the divine forces believed to influence the success of the journey.
What are the kinds of roles music may have played in supporting such leadership?
Cohesion and identity
The musical forms best suited to preserving cohesion and identity in a migratory leadership context may have been name-based chants and call-and-response songs structured around lineage, collective origin, and shared purpose as recorded in wider african ethnomusicology(4) Such forms would allow identity to be carried even without territory: the repetition of names, and group affirmations could help create continuity even as physical location changed. These structures remain visible in modern Ga–Dangme musical practices such as Asafo songs and communal Klama singing, where identity is asserted audibly through shared responses and melody. In contemporary contexts, these forms are often accompanied by drums and hand percussion, which help anchor participation and audibility. While contemporary Ga–Dangme musical practices frequently involve specific drums and percussion instruments, the oral traditions examined for this article do not specify the sound-producing tools present during the migratory period; references to instruments are therefore inferred.
Coordination during movement
Leadership demands around timing, routes, and group movement may have been supported by rhythm-led chants optimised for synchronising bodily movements rather than conveying complex narrative(5). A steady rhythmic cycle would facilitate collective walking, carrying, or crossing without reliance on verbal instruction, particularly in noisy or dangerous environments. This same logic persists in modern Ga–Dangme musical forms such as Gome drumming, labour songs, and fishermen chants, where rhythm backs effort, spacing, and collective timing. Today, these forms are closely associated with specific drums that provide a dominant pulse. Yet, oral histories of migration do not confirm the presence or type of such instruments at the time.
Morale and endurance
Sustaining morale under conditions of fatigue, fear, and uncertainty would have required short, possibly energetic repetitive chants with limited melodic range, often structured as leader-led call-and-response. These forms would help reduce the mental load, regulate breathing, and prevent silence, which could amplify fear in precarious settings. Comparable structures can be observed in contemporary Asafo songs and endurance-oriented communal performances, where repetition and rhythmic insistence take precedence over lyrical variation. Again In modern settings, drums frequently reinforce this rhythmic persistence, helping to sustain energy over extended periods.
Spiritual mediation
Moments of existential risk requiring spiritual or divine mediation, such as dangerous river crossings, may have likely called for ritual sound forms such as chants associated with divination, invocation, and spirit engagement, led by ritual specialists, possibly with different levels of participation from the larger group or pre-qualified personnel. Among the Ga–Dangme, comparable practices today include Akom possession rituals, Kpele rites in Dangme areas, and shrine-based invocations led by wulɔmei, where chant, heightened speech, and repeated formulae are used to call, question, or provoke spiritual forces(4) These chant forms typically vary depending on ritual aim and may range from calm, measured, incantatory, urgent and forceful.